Laborate Star

The Vapor Liquid Equilibrium (VLE) Apparatus is a precision laboratory equipment designed to study the equilibrium relationship between vapor and liquid phases of binary or multi-component systems. It is widely used in chemical engineering laboratories to understand phase behavior, distillation principles, and thermodynamic properties.

This apparatus enables students and researchers to experimentally determine vapor-liquid equilibrium data such as temperature, pressure, and composition at equilibrium conditions. It plays a critical role in validating theoretical models like Raoult’s Law and Dalton’s Law.

Key Features:

• Robust and corrosion-resistant construction for long-term use
• Transparent equilibrium cell for clear observation of phase behavior
• Accurate temperature and pressure measurement systems
• Digital or manual control options (depending on model)
• Easy sampling system for both vapor and liquid phases
• Compact and user-friendly design

A packed bed is a column or vessel filled with solid particles (such as spheres, pellets, or irregular shapes) through which a fluid (liquid or gas) flows. As the fluid passes through the void spaces between particles, it experiences resistance, resulting in a pressure drop.

What is Pressure Drop?

Pressure drop refers to the decrease in fluid pressure between the inlet and outlet of the packed bed due to:

• Friction between fluid and particle surfaces
• Flow constriction through narrow passages
• Changes in velocity and direction

Key Factors Affecting Pressure Drop

1. Particle Size (dp)
   Smaller particles → less void space → higher resistance → higher pressure drop
2. Bed Porosity (ε)
   Higher porosity (more void space) → lower pressure drop
3. Fluid Velocity (V)
   Higher velocity → greater friction → increased pressure drop
4. Fluid Properties
   • Viscosity (μ): higher viscosity → higher pressure drop
   • Density (ρ): affects inertial losses
5. Bed Height (L)
   Longer bed → more resistance → greater pressure drop

Flow Regimes

• Laminar Flow: Dominated by viscous forces (low velocity)
• Turbulent Flow: Dominated by inertial forces (high velocity)
• Most packed beds operate in a transition region

Ergun Equation (General Model)

The pressure drop in a packed bed is commonly calculated using the Ergun equation:

ΔP​=ε3dp2​150(1−ε)2μV​+ε3dp​1.75(1−ε)ρV2​

Where: 

ΔP = Pressure drop

L = Bed height

ε = Porosity

μ = Fluid viscosity

ρ = Fluid density

V = Superficial velocity

dp = Particle diameter

1. Reynolds Apparatus

Used to determine the nature of fluid flow (laminar, transitional, or turbulent) based on the value of Reynolds Number. A dye is injected into flowing water to visually observe flow patterns.

2. Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus

Demonstrates Bernoulli’s Principle, showing the relationship between pressure, velocity, and elevation in flowing fluids using a variable-area duct.

3. Venturimeter

A device used to measure the discharge (flow rate) of fluid through a pipe based on pressure differences. It works on Bernoulli’s principle and consists of a converging section, throat, and diverging section.

4. Orifice Meter

Measures flow rate using a flat plate with a hole (orifice). The pressure drop across the orifice helps calculate discharge.

5. Pitot Tube Apparatus

Used to measure fluid velocity at a point by converting kinetic energy into pressure energy. Commonly used in pipes and airflows.

6. Rotameter

A variable area flow meter used to measure flow rate. It has a tapered tube and a float that rises with increasing flow.

7. Hydraulic Bench

A basic unit supplying water to different experiments. It includes a sump tank, pump, measuring tank, and flow control valves.

8. Manometer (Simple/Differential)

Used to measure pressure differences in fluids using liquid columns (usually mercury or water).

9. Orifice and Mouthpiece Apparatus

Used to determine coefficients like discharge, velocity, and contraction for orifices and mouthpieces.

10. Notch Apparatus (V-Notch / Rectangular Notch)

Used to measure flow rate over a notch and study discharge characteristics.

11. Impact of Jet Apparatus

Demonstrates the force exerted by a jet of water on different surfaces (flat plate, curved vane), verifying momentum principles.

12. Flow Over Weirs Apparatus

Used to study discharge over different types of weirs and verify empirical formulas.

13. Friction Factor Apparatus

Used to determine frictional losses in pipes and calculate friction factor using Darcy–Weisbach Equation.

14. Centrifugal Pump Test Rig

Used to study the performance of a Centrifugal Pump, including head, efficiency, and power characteristics.

15. Reciprocating Pump Test Rig

Used to analyze the working and performance of a reciprocating pump including discharge and efficiency.

16. Flow Visualization Apparatus

Used to observe streamlines and flow patterns in different conditions.

The present set-up is designed to study the pressurelosses due to pipe fitting installed in a pipe lines whichcauses major losses in pressure when a fluid flowsthrough these. The set up consists of a bend and elbow, asudden expansion & sudden contraction fitting, ball valveand gate valve. Pressure tapings are provided at inlet andoutlet of these fittingsPresent set-up is an accessory of Hydraulic Bench whichcan be connected to the Hydraulic Bench with providedquick release coupling. To operate this accessory end usershould have Hydraulic Bench which is provided withcontrolled water supply, flow rate measurement anddifferential pressure measurement facility.

The present set-up is designed to study to find out the coefficientof permeability of a given medium. The setupconsists of a stainless steel pipe, which is filled withporous medium. Pressure tapings are provided on pipe tomeasure the pressure losses. A differential pressuremanometer is provided to measure the pressuredifference.Present set-up is self-contained water re-circulating unit,provided with a sump tank, centrifugal pump etc. Wateris pumped by means of centrifugal pump and passingthrough the pipe section, it returns back to the sumpwhich make the system re-circulating type. Flow of wateris diverted either to measuring tank or sump tank withthe means of a flow diverter, when needed. Flow controlvalve and by-pass valve are fitted in water line to conductthe experiment on different flow rates. Flow rate of wateris measured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch. The supplied set-up iscomplete in all respect. Only water supply and electricitysupply is to be provided by the end user for running theset-up.

The present set-up "Properties of Fluids and HydrostaticsBench" is designed to demonstrate the properties offluids and their beheaviour under hydrostatic conditionsi.e. when fluid is at rest. This allows students to developan understanding and knowledge of a wide range offundamental principles and techniques of fluid at rest,before studying fluids in motion. A variety of measuringdevices is incorporated, either fastened to the back of thebench or free standing. Water is stored in a stainless steeltank situated at the base of the unit. The water can betransferred by means of a FHP pump, to an elevated openstorage tank. This elevated tank has an overflow to avoidspillage. This elvated tank is connected to a number ofglass tubes for free surface studies. The various constanthead conditions can be achieved in this elevated tank.The set-up also consists of a pressure gauge andpressurized differential U tube manometer, mounted onthe panel. Hydrometer with hydrometer jar, fallingsphere viscometer jar, and capillary is also supplied withthe apparatus.

The present setup is designed to study the impact of jeton stationary vanes. It consists of test section fitted witha nozzle at the bottom through which water is fed anddischarged vertically to strike a target carried on a stem,which extends through the cover. A weight carrier ismounted on the upper end of the stem and dead weightof the moving parts is counter balanced by a compressionspring. The vertical force exerted on the target plate ismeasured for applied weights. Two targets are providedwith the setup, which can be attached /detached easilywithout need of any extra tool.Centrifugal pump is used to re-circulate the water fromsump tank to the test section and is return back to thesump tank. Flow diverter is provided to divert the floweither to measuring tank or sump tank. Experiments canbe conducted on different flow rates and measured withthe help of measuring tank with piezometer andstopwatch.

The present set-up consists of different types of pressuremeasurement devices. These devices are pressurizedfrom pressure tapings, mounted on a water pipe line, inwhich water is pumped by means of a centrifugal pump.This pipe lines contains an orifice meter, pressure gaugeand control valve. Any one of the pressure measuringdevice can be selected to put under operation at a time.Present set-up is self-contained water re-circulating unit,provided with a sump tank, centrifugal pump etc. Wateris pumped by means of centrifugal pump and passingthrough the pipe section, it returns back to the sumpwhich make the system re-circulating type. Flow controlvalve and by-pass valve are fitted in water line to conductthe experiment on different flow rates. The supplied setupis complete in all respect. Only water supply,electricity supply and manometric fluid is to be providedby the end user for running the set-up.

The present set-up is designed to study two types ofdifferential pressure based flow measuring devices. Oneis an orifice meter and other is Venturi meter. The set-upalso facilitates the end user to calculate fluid dischargethrough it. By determining the co-efficient of discharge ofthese flow meter these can be used as a direct flow meterand can be installed in a fluid line. The apparatus consistsof two pipe line emerging out from a common manifold.Both pipe line has been installed with a test section. Onehas venturi meter and other one has an orifice meter. Avalve arrangement is given to operate any one selectedtest section at time. Pressure taping from these flowmeters are taken out to pressurized differential pressuremanometer. Present set-up is self-contained water recirculatingunit, provided with a sump tank, centrifugalpump etc. Water is pumped by means of centrifugalpump and passing through the test sections, it returnsback to the sump which make the system re-circulatingtype. Flow of water is diverted either to measuring tankor sump tank with the means of a flow diverter, whenneeded. Flow control valve and by-pass valve are fitted inwater line to conduct the experiment on different flowrates. Flow rate of water is measured with the help ofmeasuring tank with piezometer and stopwatch. Thesupplied set-up is complete in all respect. Only watersupply and electricity supply is to be provided by the enduser for running the set-up.

A Pitot Tube is used to measure the local velocity at agiven point in the flow stream. A pitot tube of standarddesign made of copper is supplied and is fixed belowvenire scale. The venire scale is capable to measure theposition of Pitot Tube in transparent section. The pipehas a flow control valve to regulate the flow. Andifferential pressure manometer is provided to determinethe velocity head.Present set-up is self-contained water re-circulating unit,provided with a sump tank, centrifugal pump etc. Wateris pumped by means of centrifugal pump and passingthrough the test section, it returns back to the sumpwhich make the system re-circulating type. Flow of wateris diverted either to measuring tank or sump tank withthe means of a flow diverter, when needed. Flow controlvalve and by-pass valve are fitted in water line to conductthe experiment on different flow rates. Flow rate of wateris measured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch. The supplied set-up iscomplete in all respect. Only water supply and electricitysupply is to be provided by the end user for running theset-up.

The experimental set up consist of a circular transparentcylindrical tank fabricated with stainless steel at bottom.Near the bottom of the tank, four circumferential jets areplaced along the circumference of the cylinder. Thesecircumferential jets, near its bottom, helps in theformation of free vortex. It is assumed that the torqueexerted by these jets is negligible. Three differentinterchangeable openings are provided which can easilybe fixed at the bottom.A pointer can be transversed horizontally & verticallyacross full diameter of the vessel so that water surfaceprofile can be measure. Both axes contain graduations sothat exact position of the pointer is known.The experimental procedure involves measurement ofthe resulting free surface that represents the variation ofthe sum of the pressure head and datum head. Anarrangement is provided to drain the vessel.

The free vortex experimental set up consist of a circulartransparent cylindrical tank fabricated with stainless steelat bottom. Near the bottom of the tank, fourcircumferential jets are placed along the circumference ofthe cylinder. These circumferential jets, near its bottom,helps in the formation of free vortex. It is assumed thatthe torque exerted by these jets is negligible. Threedifferent interchangeable openings are provided whichcan easily be fixed at the bottom. A pointer can betransverse horizontally & vertically across full diameter ofthe vessel so that water surface profile can be measure.Both axes contain graduations so that exact position ofthe pointer is known. The experimental procedureinvolves measurement of the resulting free surface thatrepresents the variation of the sum of the pressure headand datum head. An arrangement is provided to drain thevessel.The forced experimental set-up consist of a circulartransparent cylindrical tank, fixed on a stainless steelplate. This plate is rotated with the help of a variablespeed motor so that the cylinder rotates about its verticalaxis. The motor is supplied with speed control facility androtation of the transparent tank is displayed on a DigitalRPM Indicator. Water is filled in this tank up to certainlevel. When this water filled transparent tank rotates, aforced vortex is formed. An upper probe can betransverse horizontally & vertically across full diameter ofthe transparent tank so that water surface profile can bemeasure. Both axes contain graduations so that exactposition of the probe is known. The experimentalprocedure involves measurement of the resulting freesurface that represents the variation of the sum of thepressure head and datum head. An arrangement isprovided to drain the vessel.

Present set-up is designed to observe the laminar,transitional and turbulent flow zones of fluid and to findthe Reynold’s Number. The apparatus consists of a glasstube mounted vertically and connected to a constanthead water tank. At the other end, a valve is provided tovary the flow rate of fluid flowing through this glass tube.Glass tube has a bell mouth entrance where a capillarytube is introduced in centre of the tube for feeding dyefrom a small container placed at the top of tank. Byvarying the rate of flow of water, the Reynolds’s numberis changed. This also changes the type of flow. Visualobservation of dye (Thread) will indicate the type of flow,which can be confirmed from the Reynolds numbercomputed.Controlled water supply with flow measuringarrangement, for the set-up, is to be provided by the enduser. Otherwise to operate this accessory, end usershould have Hydraulic Bench, which will providecontrolled water supply and flow rate measurementfacility.

The present setup is designed to study the discharge overnotches. It consists of a flow channel of sufficient lengthand width fitted with calming section and flowsmoothening plates to achieve undisturbed flow. Set ofthree notches are provided which can be attached ordetached easily at the end of flow channel without needof extra tool. A pointer gauge with Vernier scale is fittedto measure the height of fluid in flow channel.Centrifugal pump is used to re-circulate the water fromsump tank to the Flow channel and test section and isreturn back to the sump tank. Flow diverter is provided todivert the flow either to measuring tank or sump tank.Experiments can be conducted on different flow ratesand measured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch.

The present set-up is designed and fabricated todemonstrate the Bernoulli's theorem. It consists of a testsection having convergent and divergent section wherepressure tapings are provided at different locations tomeasure the pressure head, which is displayed onmanometer board.Centrifugal pump is used to re-circulate the water fromsump tank to the inlet tank and test section and is returnback to the sump tank. Flow diverter is provided to divertthe flow either to measuring tank or sump tank. Constanthead condition is maintained in the inlet tank.Experiments can be conducted on different flow ratesand measured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch.

The present set-up is designed to study an orifice meterand to calculate fluid discharge through it. By determiningthe co-efficient of discharge of this orifice meter it can beused as a flow meter and can be installed in a fluid line.The apparatus consists of a pipe line with a transparentacrylic section in which a stainless steel orifice is installed.The pressure tapings from the Orifice meter is taken topressurized differential pressure manometer to measurepressure difference. Present set-up is self-containedwater re-circulating unit, provided with a sump tank,centrifugal pump etc. Water is pumped by means ofcentrifugal pump and passing through the test section, itreturns back to the sump which make the system recirculatingtype. Flow of water is diverted either tomeasuring tank or sump tank with the means of a flowdiverter, when needed. Flow control valve and by-passvalve are fitted in water line to conduct the experimenton different flow rates. Flow rate of water is measuredwith the help of measuring tank with piezometer andstopwatch. The supplied set-up is complete in all respect.Only water supply and electricity supply is to be providedby the end user for running the set-up.

The present set-up is designed to study an venturi meterand to calculate fluid discharge through it. By determiningthe co-efficient of discharge of this venturi meter it canbe used as a flow meter and can be installed in a fluidline. The apparatus consists of a pipe line in which atransparent venturi meter is installed. The pressuretapings from the venturi meter is taken to pressurizeddifferential pressure manometer to measure pressuredifference. Present set-up is self-contained water recirculatingunit, provided with a sump tank, centrifugalpump etc. Water is pumped by means of centrifugalpump and passing through the test section, it returnsback to the sump which make the system re-circulatingtype. Flow of water is diverted either to measuring tankor sump tank with the means of a flow diverter, whenneeded. Flow control valve and by-pass valve are fitted inwater line to conduct the experiment on different flowrates. Flow rate of water is measured with the help ofmeasuring tank with piezometer and stopwatch. Thesupplied set-up is complete in all respect. Only watersupply and electricity supply is to be provided by the enduser for running the set-up.

The present set-up is designed to study the friction headlosses through pipes, fittings, and flow metering devices.Four different ID sizes smooth pipes and one artificiallyroughened pipe is connected in parallel. A valvearrangement is provided to operate the one pipe at atime. Various types of fitting are also fitted with pressuretaps to conduct the experiment. Venturi meter, orificemeter and pitot tube also accompanies the set-up. Tomeasure the pressure difference across the each fitting,pressure taps are taken to manometer with help of nonspillquick release couplings. Present set-up is selfcontainedwater re-circulating unit, provided with a sumptank, centrifugal pump etc. Water is pumped by means ofcentrifugal pump and passing through the selected testsections, it returns back to the sump which make thesystem re-circulating type. Flow of water is divertedeither to measuring tank or sump tank with the means ofa flow diverter, when needed. Flow control valve and bypassvalve are fitted in water line to conduct theexperiment on different flow rates. Flow rate of water ismeasured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch. The supplied set-up iscomplete in all respect. Only water supply and electricitysupply is to be provided by the end user for running theset-up.

The apparatus has been designed to demonstrate thephenomenon of cavitation. The present set-up consists ofa test section made of Acrylic having conversion anddiversion section. Pressure tapings at appropriateposition are provided. This test section is having onecontrol valve at upstream side to regulate the water flowrate. Two pressure gauges are connected to these tapingwhich give the pressure readout at the time of flowpassing through this test section.Present set-up is self-contained water re-circulating unit,provided with a sump tank, centrifugal pump etc. Wateris pumped by means of centrifugal pump and passingthrough the test section, it returns back to the sumpwhich make the system re-circulating type. Flow of wateris diverted either to measuring tank or sump tank withthe means of a flow diverter, when needed. Flow controlvalve and by-pass valve are fitted in water line to conductthe experiment on different flow rates. Flow rate of wateris measured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch. The supplied set-up iscomplete in all respect. Only water supply and electricitysupply is to be provided by the end user for running theset-up.

The present set-up is designed to provide a platform andcontrolled water supply with flow measuring facility tothe different accessories in fluid mechanic. It is providedwith a top tray, sump tank, measuring tank and controlvalve. Various hydraulics experiments can be conductedon this set-up. A centrifugal Pump is fitted for watercirculation. A quick release coupling is provided in flexiblewater line to attach or detach any accessory to hydraulicbench with ease. Flow rate of water is measured with thehelp of measuring tank with piezometer and stop watch.Water collected on the top tray from experimental setup,drains and return to sump tank. A pressurizeddifferential pressure manometer also accompanies theset-up.Present set-up is self-contained water re-circulating unit,provided with a sump tank, measuring tank, centrifugalpump etc. Water is pumped by means of centrifugalpump and passing through the accessory under test, itreturns back to the sump which make the system recirculatingtype. Flow of water is diverted either tomeasuring tank or to sump tank with the means of a flowdiverter, when needed. Flow control valve and by-passvalve are fitted in water line to conduct the experimenton different flow rates. Flow rate of water is measuredwith the help of measuring tank with piezometer andstopwatch. The supplied set-up is complete in all respect.Only water supply and electricity supply is to be providedby the end user for running the set-up.

The present set-up is designed to study a nozzle meterand to calculate fluid discharge through it. By determiningthe co-efficient of discharge of this nozzle meter it can beused as a flow meter and can be installed in a fluid line.The apparatus consists of a pipe line in which atransparent nozzle meter is installed. The pressuretapings from the nozzle meter is taken to pressurizeddifferential pressure manometer to measure pressuredifference.Present set-up is self-contained water re-circulating unit,provided with a sump tank, centrifugal pump etc. Wateris pumped by means of centrifugal pump and passingthrough the test section, it returns back to the sumpwhich make the system re-circulating type. Flow of wateris diverted either to measuring tank or sump tank withthe means of a flow diverter, when needed. Flow controlvalve and by-pass valve are fitted in water line to conductthe experiment on different flow rates. Flow rate of wateris measured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch. The supplied set-up iscomplete in all respect. Only water supply and electricitysupply is to be provided by the end user for running theset-up.

The present set-up is designed to study a bend meter andto calculate fluid discharge through it. By determining theco-efficient of discharge of this bend meter it can be usedas a flow meter and can be installed in a fluid line. Theapparatus consists of a pipe line in which a bend meter isinstalled. The pressure tapings from the bend meter istaken to differential pressure manometer to measurepressure difference.Present set-up is self-contained water re-circulating unit,provided with a sump tank, centrifugal pump etc. Wateris pumped by means of centrifugal pump and passingthrough the test section, it returns back to the sumpwhich make the system re-circulating type. Flow of wateris diverted either to measuring tank or sump tank withthe means of a flow diverter, when needed. Flow controlvalve and by-pass valve are fitted in water line to conductthe experiment on different flow rates. Flow rate of wateris measured with the help of measuring tank withpiezometer and stopwatch. The supplied set-up iscomplete in all respect. Only water supply and electricitysupply is to be provided by the end user for running theset-up